在工厂制度之前，存在着家族和邻里制度。今天我们这辈人，只要回溯一代、
两代、至多三代以前，就能发现那时候一切典型工业实际上在家庭进行，或者群集
在它的周围。穿的衣服绝大部分是在家庭里缝制的；家庭的成员一般都熟悉剪羊毛、
梳理羊毛和纺羊毛以及纺织机的操作。室内照明的整个过程，不是按一下电灯开关
就行，而要经历宰杀牲畜，提炼油脂，制成烛芯，制造蜡烛这样长时间的辛勤劳动。
面粉、木头、食物、建筑材料、家具，乃至金属用品，如钉子、 铰链、锤等等的供
给，都是附近的作坊生产的。这些作坊经常供人参观，往往是邻近地区集会的中心。
因此，从田间原料的生产到成品的实际应用这一整个过程，都明显地显示出来。不
仅如此，而且实际上每个家庭的成员都分担了工作。当儿童有一定的力气和能力时，
就逐步地传授给各种生产过程中的诀窍。这是直接和亲自关切的事情，甚至可以说
是到了实际参与的程度。
我们不能忽视这种类型的生活中所含有的训练和品格形成的因素，即养成守秩
序和勤劳的习惯，对于世界的责任感以及应当做这些事和生产某些东西的义务感。
每个家庭总是有些事情需要去完成，它的每个成员必须竭尽自己的本分，并与其他
成员相协作。在行动中具有实效的人格被培育出来并通过行动得到检验。再者，直
接地去接触自然、实际的事物和素材，它们的手工操作的实际过程，以及关于它们
的社会需要和用途的知识，对于教育目的极为重要，我们对此不能忽视。这一切，
都在不断地培养观察力、创造力、建设性的想象力、逻辑思维，以及通过直接接触
实际而获得的那种现实感。家庭纺织、锯木工场、磨坊、制桶工场和铁工场的教育
力量，都不断地在起着作用。

And some boys, on the other hand, are becoming hesitant to get married, or simply remain solitary, among miscellaneous reasons they do so is one thing: " I can take care of myself, at least I don't really need someone prepare me dinner! "
另一方面，一些男孩开始犹豫着结婚，或者仅仅是保持孤独，他们这么做的原因有一点：“我可以照顾好自己，至少我不需要有人给我准备晚餐！”

为灌输知识而组织的实物教育，不管有多少，绝不能代替关于农场和田园的动
植物的直接知识，这种直接知识是通过在动植物中的实际生活和照料动植物而获得
的。

Anyway, such a change is positive and it did improve the quality of people' s life. At least it has brought girls, boys, husbands, wives, children and everyone else who has to prepare food an opportunity, no matter what kind of opportunity it is.
无论如何，这样的变化是积极的，它确实改善了人们的生活质量。至少它给女孩、男孩、丈夫、妻子、孩子和所有其他必须准备食物的人带来了机会，不管是什么样的机会。

It has been said, "Not everything that is learned is contained in books." Compare and contrast knowledge
gained from experience with knowledge gained from books. In your opinion, which source is more important?
Why

安

安

安

The Will of God a.nd Existence of Spirits
There remains, however, a basic question: How to persuade people
thus to love one another? One may tell them, as was said above, thatA SHORT IIISTORY OF CHINESE PHILOSOPHy
the practice of all-embracing love is the only way to benefit the wOlld
and that every human-hearted man is one who practices all-emhracing
love. Yet people may still ask: Why should Tpersonally act to henefit
the world and why should I be a human-healted man? One may lhen
argue further that if the world as a whole is benefited, this means
benefit for every individual in the world as well. Or as Mo Tzu says:
"He who loves others, must also be loved by othels. He who benefits
others, must also be benefited by others. He who hates othelS, must
also be hated by others. He who injures others, must also be injured
by others." (Mo-tzu, eh. 17.) Thus, then, the love of others is a sort
of personal insurance or investment, which "pays," as Americans
, would say. Most people, however, are too shortsighted to see the
'value of a long term investment of this sort, and there are a few instances in which such an investment does, indeed, fail to pay.
天志和明鬼
可是还有一个根本问题：如何说服人们兼爱呢？你可以把上面所说的告诉人们，说实行兼爱是利天下的唯一道路，说仁人是实行兼爱的人。可是人们还会问：我个人行动为什么要利天下？我为什么必须成为仁人？你可以进一步论证说，如果对全天下有利，也就是对天下的每个人都有利。或者用墨子的话说，“夫爱人者，人必从而爱之；利人者，人必从而利之；恶人者，人必从而恶之；害人者，人必从而害之。”(《兼爱中》)这样说来，爱别人就是一种个人保险或投资，它是会得到偿还的。可是绝大多数人都很近视，看不出这种长期投资的价值。也还有一些实例，说明这样的投资根本得不到偿还。

为了诱导人们实行兼爱，所以墨子在上述的道理之外，又引进丁许多宗教的、政治的制裁。因此，《墨子》有几篇讲“天志”，“明鬼”。其中说，天帝存在，天帝爱人，天帝的意志是一切人要彼此相爱。天帝经常监察人的行动，特别是统治者的行动。他以祸惩罚那些违反天意的人，以福奖赏那些顺从天意的人。除了天帝，还有许多小一些的鬼神，他们也同天帝一样，奖赏那些实行兼爱的人，惩罚那些交相“别”的人。
有一个墨子的故事与此有关，很有趣味。故事说：“子墨子有疾。跌鼻进而问曰；先生以鬼神为明，能为祸福，为善者赏之，为不善者罚之。今先生圣人也，何故有疾？意者先生之言有不善乎？鬼神不明知乎？子墨子曰；虽使我有病，鬼神何遽不明？人之所得于病者多方：有得之寒暑，有得之劳苦。百门而闭一门焉、则盗何遽无从人？”(《墨子·公孟》)如果用现代逻辑的术语，墨子可以说，鬼神的惩罚是一个人有病的充足原因，而不是必要原因。
In order, therefore, to induce people to practice the principle of
all-embracing love, Mo Tzu, in addition to the foregoing arguments,
Iintroduces a number of religious and political sanctions. Thus in the
Me-t:w there are chapters on "The Will of Heaven," and also oncs
titled "Proof of the Existence of Spirits." In these we read that God
I~exists; that He loves mankind; and that His Will is that all men
should love one another. He constantly supervises the activities of
~en, especially those of the rulers of men. He punishes with calamities persons who disobey His Will, and rewards with good fortune
those who obey. Besides God, there are also numerous lesser spirits
j who likewise reward men who practice all-embracing love, and punish
those who practice "discrimination."
In this connection there is an interesting story about Mo Tzu:
"When Mo Tzu was once ill, Tieh Pi came to him and inquired:
I 'Sir, you hold that the spirits are intelligent and control calamities
and blessings. They reward the good and punish the evil. Now you
are a sage. How then can you be ill? Is it that your teaching is not
I" entirely correct or that the spirits are after all not intelligent?' Mo
Tzu replied: 'Though I am ill, why should the spirits be unintelli-
,gent? There are many ways by which a man can contract diseases.
Some are contracted from cold or heat, some from fatigue. If there
,are a hundred doors and only one be closed, will there not be ways
by which robbers can enter?''' (Mo-tw, eh. 48.) In modern logical
,terminology, Mo Tzu would say that punishment by the spirits is a
sufficient cause for the disease of a man, but not its necessary cause.

儒家、墨家这些好像是矛盾的地方，都不是真正的矛盾。照儒家所说，行祭礼的原因不再是因为相信鬼神真正存在，当然相信鬼神存在无疑是祭礼的最初原因。行礼只是祭祀祖先的人出于孝敬祖先的感情，所以礼的意义是诗的，不是宗教的。这个学说后来被荀子及其学派详细地发挥了，本书第十三章将要讲到。所以根本没有什么真正的矛盾。
同样在墨家的观点中也没有实际的矛盾。因为墨子要证明鬼神存在，本来是为了给他的兼爱学说设立宗教的制裁，并不是对于超自然的实体有任何真正的兴趣。所以他把天下大乱归咎于“疑惑鬼神之有与无之别，不明乎鬼神之能赏贤而罚暴也”，并且接着问道：“今若使天下之人偕若信鬼神之能赏贤而罚暴也，则夫天下岂乱哉？”(《墨子·明鬼下》)所以他的“天志”、“明鬼”之说都不过是诱导人们相信：实行兼爱则受赏，不实行兼爱则受罚。在人心之中有这样的一种信仰也许是有用的，因此墨子需要它。“节用”、“节葬”也是有用的，因此墨子也需要它。从墨子的极端功利主义观点看来，需要这两种东西是毫不矛盾的，因为两者都是有用的。
Yet the seeming inconsistencies of the Confucianists and Mohists
are botr unreal. According to the fonner, the reason for performing
the sacrificial rituals is no longer a belief that the spirits actually exist,
though no doubt this was the original reason. Rather, the perEornlance springs from the sentiment of respect toward his departed forebears held by tIle man who offers the sacri~ce. Hence the meaning
of the ceremonies is poetic, not religious. This theory was later developed by Hsiin Tzu and his school of Confucianism in detail, as we
shall see in chapter thirteen of this book. Hence there is no real inconsistency at all.
Likewise there is no actual inconsistency in tlle Mohist point of
view, for Mo Tzu's proof of the existence of spirits is done primarily
in order that he may introduce a religious sanction for his doctrine
of all-embracing love, rather than because of any real interest in
supernatural matters. Thus in his chapter on "Proof of the Existence
of Spirits," he attributes the existing confusion of the world to "a
doubt (among men) as to the existence of spirits and a failure to
understand that they can reward the good and punish the bad." He
then asks: "If now all the people of the world could be made to believe that tile spirits can reward the good and puuish the bad, wouldA SHORT HISTORY OF CTlINESE I'HILOSOl'IIY
the world then be in chaos?" (Ch. 31.) Thus his doctrine of the Will
of God and the existence of spirits is only to induce people to believe
that they will be rewarded·if they practice all-cmbracillg love, and PUllished if they do not. Such a belief among the people was something
useful; hence Mo Tzu wanted it. "Economy of expenditure" in the
funeral and sacrificial services was also useful; hcnce Mo Tzu wanted it
too. From his ultra-utilitarian point of view, there was no inconsistency
in wanting both things, sincc both were useful.

In general, knowledge gained from books has a wider range than that gained from experience.

吃饭诺

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